2. Jerome R. Mintz, Legends of the Hasidim, Chicago (Chicago University Press) 1968, pp. 389-390.
3. This entire tale is in: Clement M. Doke, Lamba Folk-Lore, New York (American Folk-Lore Society), 1927, pp. 192-201.
4. This was the Lamba word meaning: `persons of Lamba ethnic identity.' The singular is Umulamba.
5. This was the Lamba word meaning: `a person of Lamba ethnic identity.'
6. Doke, Lamba Folk-Lore, p. 193.
7. Unless otherwise noted, all quotations from the Bible appearing in this book are drawn from the Jerusalem Bible. I do not, however, share the opinion of the Jerusalem Bible's editors that "the story of Samson supposes the existence of an historical personage..." Other evidence than the story itself may suppose that, but the evidence of the international tale pattern as adduced in this book strongly argues to my mind the superfluity of any supposition about real historical persons not only in connection with Samson but also in connection with the several other Old Testament characters whose tales follow the same fabulous patterns as his.
8. Doke, Lamba Folk-Lore, p. 195.
* The common process in oral traditional narrative whereby the fantastic element in a tale is progressively amplified I shall hereafter refer to as `expanding fabulosity.'
10. This was the Lamba name for their own country.
11. Doke, 304-305.
12. Ibid., 126-131.
13. Ibid., 34-39.
14. Ibid., 140-143.
15. As particular frequenters of human and animal bodies, food, carrion, and excrement, the flies would of course be most likely to gather in large numbers to eat rather than to be eaten, thus sharing in their own way in the essential paradox peculiar to the generic motif of Chilubwelubwe's tree.
16. Doke, 8-11.
17. Fr. Klaeber, ed., Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburg, Boston (D. C. Heath and Company) 1950, pp. 51-52.
18. Ibid., 53.
19. Ibid., 57-58.
20. Ibid., 61.
21. Ibid., 58-59.
22. Chicago (University of Chicago Press), 1962.
23. London (Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co.), 1921.
24. Julius Torrend, Specimens, 85 ff.
25. Photographed by the author in Kangaba, Mali, 1969.
26. Torrend, 9-14.
27. Ibid., 24-28.
28. Julius Torrend, Specimens, 40-46.
* Helen's tree at Sparta, in Theocritus, Idylls, 18. 43 ff.; for Helene Dendritis at Rhodes, Pausanius, Description, 3. 19. 10.
** So Carl Boetticher, Der Baumkultus der Hellenen, pps. 119-120; R. Engelmann, `Helena,' in: W.H. Roscher, Ausführliches Lexikon der griechischen u. römischen Mythologie, 1928-1978; Lewis Richard Farnell, Greek Hero-Cults and Ideas of Immortality, pps. 323-5 et passim; Martin P. Nilsson, Geschichte der Griechischen Religion, especially pages 211, 315 and 487 (vol. 1); Herbert J. Rose, Handbook of Greek Mythology, and `Helen,' in: M. Cary, A.D. Nock, et al., The Oxford Classical Dictionary.
29. Julius Torrend, Specimens, 97-145.
30. Daniel Biebuyek and Kahombo C. Mateene, The Mwindo Epic, Berkeley and Los Angeles (University of California Press) 1969.
31. Throughout his collection, Torrend followed the convenient practice of dividing such long tales as ``Kapepe'' into sections according to the tunes of the songs specific to each.
32. Torrend, 145.
33. For more information about this tree in Central African fable, see Doke, Lamba Folk-Lore, 39 ff., and the Zambesi Mission Record for the year 1907, number 35, p. 142.
34. Victor W(itter) Turner, "Symbols in Ndembu Ritual," in: Closed Systems and Open Minds: The Limits of Naivety in Social Anthropology, edited by Max Gluckman, Chicago (Aldine Publishing Company), 1964, pp. 20-51.
35. Ibid., 26.
36. James George Frazer, The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, London (MacMillan and Company), 1911, vol. 1, pp. 8-9.
37. Ibid., 11.
38. Ibid., 21.
39. The italics are mine.
40. This translation is from The New English Bible.
41. It is immaterial whether Paul or anyone else in particular wrote what we read in the Epistle to Timothy. The point is that it had the force of religious dictate down through the ages of Christian history, not so much to the detriment of actual storytelling, which is irrepressible in mankind, but to the great detriment of analytical knowledge about oral fable, which could not be concertedly studied in an open, organized manner wherever and so long as the Pauline doctrine held sway.
42. J. G. Frazer, The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, vol. 2, pp. 7-96.
43. In the Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. 21, 1901, pp. 99-204.
44. Arthur J(ohn) Evans, "Mycenaean Tree and Pillar Cult," p. 106.
45. Ibid., 145.
46. Ibid., 186.
47. Ibid., 163-164.
48. Ibid., 156-157.
49. Ibid., 164.
50. Evans had not yet adopted the term `Minoan' to differentiate his own archaeological discoveries of Bronze-Age civilization on Crete from the remains of the somewhat later Bronze-Age civilization on the Greek mainland which is now properly designated `Mycenaean.'
51. Henri Frankfort, Cylinder Seals: A Documentary Essay on the Arts and Religion of the Ancient Near East, London (MacMillan and Co.), 1939, pp. 107 and 181.
52. Edith Porada and Briggs Buchanan, Corpus of Ancient Near Eastern Seals in North American Collections: The Collection of the Pierpont Morgan Library, New York (Pantheon Books, Inc.), 1948, vol. 1, p. 89.
53. Ibid., 92.
54. Ibid., 92.
55. Ibid., 83.
56. Ibid., 71.
57. Ibid., 68-69.
58. Ibid., 67.
59. Frankfort, Cylinder Seals, 205-206.
60. Ibid., 206-207.
61. Ibid., 189.
62. Porada and Buchanan, Corpus of Seals, 67.
63. Ibid., 21-22.
64. Frankfort, 126-127.
65. James B. Pritchard, ed., Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, Princeton (Princeton University Press), 1969, p. 85.
66. Frankfort, pp. 15 and 28.
67. Ibid., 30-38.
68. Ibid., 19.
69. Pritchard, Ancient Texts, 73.
70. Ibid., 73.
71. Ibid., 73-74.
72. Ibid., 75.
73. Ibid., 74.
74. Ibid., 78.
75. Ibid., 76.
76. Ibid., 79.
77. I have followed the translator's suggestion in Pritchard, Ancient Texts, p. 82, that the cedar is singular, and have altered the translation accordingly.
78. Pritchard, 82.
79. Ibid., 83.
80. Ibid., 83.
81. Ibid., 85.
82. Ibid., 88.
83. Ibid., 88.
84. Ibid., 97.
85. Chicago (Chicago University Press), 1970.
86. Grahame Clark, World Prehistory: An Outline, Oxford (Oxford University Press) 1962, pp. 16-17.
87. Evans, "Mycenaean Tree and Pillar Cult," pp. 201-203.
88. In Sovetskaya ètnografiya, nos. 1-2, Leningrad (Akademiya nauk), 1934, pp. 128-150.
89. See for example "Aschenputtel," No. 21 in: Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, Kinder- und Hausmärchen, Munich (Winkler-verlag), 1949.
90. See for example "Von dem Machandelboom," No. 47 in Grimm, op. cit.
91. Leningrad (Leningrad University Press) 1946.
92. Leningrad (Leningrad University Press) 1955.
93. This tale is entitled "Hare, Hornbill and Tortoise," and is in: Merlin Ennis, Umbundu: Folk Tales from Angola, Boston (Beacon Press), 1962, pp. 295-299.
94. See Albert B. Lord, The Singer of Tales, Cambridge (Harvard University Press), 1960, p. 97.
95. Ruth Finnegan, Limba Stories and Story-Telling, Oxford (Clarendon Press), 1967, p. 254.
96. Ibid.,. 254-257.
97. Ibid., 257-259.
98. Ibid., 137-140.
99. Cambridge (Harvard University Press), 1966.
100. Walker and Uysal, Tales Alive in Turkey, pp. 64-71.
101. "Ženidba hajduk Golalije," No. 11 in: Serbocroatian Heroic Songs, collected and edited by Milman Parry and Albert Bates Lord, vol. 2, Belgrade and Cambridge (Serbian Academy of Sciences and Harvard University Press), 1953, pp. 107-116.
102. Ibid., vol. 1, 1954, p. 372.
103. Ibid., vol. 2, pp. 149-157.
104. Unpublished text in the Milman Parry Collection.
105. This was one of the more horrific retributive uses of the hewn wood in actual custom in the Levant. A complete verbal description of such an execution is in the modern Yugoslav author Ivo Andrić's novel Na Drini ćuprija [The Bridge on the Drina] (see for example his Sabrana dela [Collected Works], vol. 1, Belgrade, 1965, pp. 44-52).
106. From Ali's lap to his shoulder, the stake is moved in its first two appearances in the story in a manner external to Ali's body that corresponds exactly to the points of entry, exit, and direction which his executioners would give to the stake in the eventual act of spitting him as prescribed by this method of execution.
107. Published in: Serbo-Croatian Heroic Songs, collected by Milman Parry (Albert B. Lord and David E. Bynum, eds.) vol. 4, Cambridge (Center for the Study of Oral Literature), 1974.
108. Ibid., 386.
109. Algirdas Landsbergis and Clark Mills, eds., The Green Linden: Selected Lithuanian Folksongs, New York (Voyages Press) 1964, pp. 36-37.
110. Ibid., 27.
111. Ibid., 30-31.
112. A common motif of ballad in the English-speaking world, the so-called `Lovers' Knot' of sympathetic plants employs the image of the green wood with affective connotations, e.g. stanzas 29 and 30 of variant A, No. 73 in: Francis James Child, The English and Scottish Popular Ballads, Boston, 1882-1898:
Lord Thomas was buried without kirk-wa,
Fair Annet within the quiere,
And o the tane thair grew a birk,
The other a bonny briere.
And ay they grew, and ay they threw,
As they wad faine be neare;
And by this ye may ken right weil
They were twa luvers deare.
113. Landsbergis and Mills, The Green Linden, p. 51.
114. Ibid., 68-69.
115. Ibid., 31-32.
116. Ritual or customary, that is, inasmuch as great numbers of such recorded `lyrical' songs pertain in some way to seasonal (calendary) or personal festivals, customs, and rites.
117. Thomas Percy, Reliques of Ancient English Poetry, vol. 3, 1794, pp. 350-358, and: John W. Hales and Frederick J. Furnivall, eds., Bishop Percy's Folio Manuscript, vol. 1, London, 1867, pp. 103-118.
118. Hales and Furnivall, Percy's Manuscript, pp. 105-106.
119. John Britton and Edward Wedlake Brayley, The Beauties of England and Wales, vol. 3, London, 1802, pp. 51-52.
120. Ibid., 51.
121. Daniel and Samuel Lysons, Magna Brittania, vol. 4 (Cumberland) London, 1816, p. 112.
122. J. H. F. Brabner, ed., The Comprehensive Gazeteer of England and Wales, vol. 3, London, n. d. (received in Harvard College Library in July, 1895) p. 133.
123. John Bartholomew, The Survey Gazeteer of the British Isles, eighth edition, Edinburgh, 1932, p. 662.
124. Hales and Funivall, Percy's Manuscript, p. 108.
125. Ibid., 107-108.
126. Ibid., 109.
127. Ibid., 110.
128. Ibid., 110.
129. Ibid., 111-112.
130. Ibid., 112.
131. Ibid., 112-113.
132. Ibid., 115-116.
133. Ibid., 117-118.
134. Ibid., 118.
135. Gerard Murphy, Early Irish Lyrics, Oxford (Clarendon Press) 1956, p. 108.
136. Ibid., 109.
137. Ibid., 108-109.
138. Hans P.A. Oskamp, The Voyage of Máel Dúin, Groningen (Wolters-Noordhoff Publishing), 1970.
139. Ibid., 125.
140. Ibid., 144-147.
141. Sean O'Sullivan, Folktales of Ireland, Chicago (University of Chicago Press), 1966, pp. 97-117; 266.
142. Ibid., 100-101.
143. Ibid., 101.
144. Ibid., 101.
145. Ibid., 104.
146. Ibid., 104.
147. Ibid., 105.
148. Ibid., 106.
149. Ibid., 106.
150. A. N. Nechaev, Skazki M. M. Korgueva, Petrozavodsk (Karelian State Publishers), 1939, pps. 277-297.
151. A. N. Afanas'ev, Narodnye russkie skazki, volume 3, Moscow (State Publishers of Fine Literature), 1957, p. 270.
152. A. N. Afanasev, Russkie zavetnye skazki, Valaam, Year of the Devil's Murk, pp. 166-170.
153. Thomas C. Rumble, ed., The Breton Lays in Middle English, Detroit (Wayne State University Press), 1965, pp. 207-226.
154. Morton W. Bloomfield, Essays and Explorations, Cambridge (Harvard University Press) 1970, p. 113.
155. "Maya-mayi the Seven Sisters," in: Australian Legendary Tales, collected by K. Langloh Parker, edited by H. Drake-Brockman, New York (The Viking Press), 1966, pp. 148-154.
156. Morris Edward Opler, Myths and Tales of the Jicarilla Apache Indians, New York (American Folk-Lore Society Memoirs, volume 31), 1938, pp. xviii-xix; 210-213.
157. Ibid., 213-215.
157a. Ruth Benedict, Zuñi Mythology, vol. 2, New York (Columbia University Press), 1935, pps. 110-121, and notes, pps. 285-286.
158. Evon Z. Vogt, Zinacantan: A Maya Community in the Highlands of Chiapas, Cambridge (Harvard University Press), 1969, pp. 319-326.
159. Curt Nimuendaju, The Apinaye, Washington (Catholic University of America, Anthropological Series No. 8), 1939, pp. 175-177.
160. Warren S. Walker and Ahmet E. Uysal, Tales Alive in Turkey, Cambridge (Harvard University Press), 1966, pp. 10-24, 259.
161. Ibid., 104-111; 272-273.
162. Ibid., 34-54; 264.
163. Grimm, Kinder- und Hausmärchen, No. 1. I know the unreliability of this collection as a record of oral fable. The reader may, as I have, want to consult Johannes Bolte and Georg Polivka, Anmerkungen zu den Kinder- und Hausmärchen der Brüder Grimm, second edition, volumes 1-3, Hildesheim (Georg Olms), 1963, to verify the traditionality of the multiforms in Grimm of those particular motifs, patterns, and themes which I have discussed in this book. My use of certain material from the Grimms' collection should thus not be interpreted as an uncritical endorsement of the entire collection as authentic oral fable, which it is not.
164. Ibid., No. 16.
165. Ibid., No. 63.
166. Antti Aarne and Stith Thompson, The Types of the Folktale: A Classification and Bibliography, second edition, Helsinki (Finnish Academy of Sciences), 1961. Pp. 195-197.
167. Edward E. Evans-Pritchard, ed., The Zande Trickster, Oxford (Clarendon Press) 1967, pp. 17; 100-106.
168. Fanny Hagin Mayer, tr., Japanese Folk Tales. A Revised Selection by Kunio Yanagita, Taipei (The Orient Cultural Service), 1972, pp. 85-87.
169. Aarne and Thompson, Types of the Folktale, pp. 88-90; 113-114; 331; 431-436.
170. Afanas'ev, Narodnye russkie skazki, volume 1, pp. 231-239.
171. Ibid., 228-230.
172. Georgios A. Megas, ed., Folktales of Greece, Chicago (University of Chicago Press), 1970, pp. 113-119.
173. Edwin William Smith and Andrew Murray Dale, The Ila-speaking Peoples of Northern Rhodesia, volume 2, London, 1920, pp. 347-348.
174. This name in Ila is Chikambwe.
175. Parker and Drake-Brockman, Australian Legendary Tales, pp. 221-225.
176. Quoted with minor differences also by George Legman in his Rationale of the Dirty Joke: An Analysis of Sexual Humor, New York (Grove Press) 1968, p. 447.
177. Found in: Legman, Rationale, p. 449.
178. The English translation quoted throughout my discussion of Genesis One is from The New English Bible.
179. I am very grateful to Mrs. Susan Niditch-Doran for her kind, expert advice concerning the grammatical and lexical characteristics of the Hebrew words cited in this discussion.
180. Here and elsewhere I use the text of the Theogony edited by Friedrich Solmsen in Hesiodi: Theogonia; Opera et Dies; Scutum, Oxford (Clarendon Press) 1970.
181. M. L. West, Hesiod: Theogony, Oxford (Clarendon Press) 1966, 195-196.
182. Clark M. Garber, Stories and Legends of the Bering Strait Eskimos, Boston (The Christopher Publishing House), 1940, pp. 160-164. For additional examples of the Two Trees in Eskimo traditions see also: D. Jenness, Report of the Canadian Arctic Expedition 1913-18, Volume XIII: Eskimo Folk-Lore, Ottawa (F. C. Acland, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty), 1924, pp. 49A-52A; 53A-56A.
183. E. S. Stevens, Folk-Tales of ‘Iraq, London,1931, pp. 224-230.
184. V. Ja. Propp, Morfologija skazki, second edition, Moscow (Nauka), 1969, pp. 25-28.
185. Parry text 12428, verses 1348-1353:
Karamanluk je, i tmuša velika.
Pokraj puta prevelike jele
preko klanca preplešu grane.
Tijesni klanci, dugi karamani,
dok se Halku dade poslušati:
tutanj velik ide uz bogaze.
186. Further in Parry text 12428:
I iz glasa viče serhatlija:
»Bog te kleo, Brešljen gora kleta, 1355
vazda li si tmušna i mrčana.
Noćas nema vida od oblaka.
Doklen vida od oblaka,
sve nahodah traga od đogata,
a sad više steže pomrčina. 1360
Nit' ja vidim traga đogatova,
niti znadem kudar ću hoditi,
Ni sad đe ću Hrnjičića naći.
Dockan me je opravijo Mujo
da mu brata putovima čuvam.«
Halil čuje, a pita Osmana:
»Moj Osmane, poznaješ li, brate,
koji soko u planini viče?«
Osman 'vako besjedi Halilu:
»Sreca, brate, i moja i tvoja 1370
– ono mudra Kurtagića glava,
od Otoke Kurtagić Nušina.
Nema brata dok ne rodi majka
– vidiš što se potrudijo Mujo
te za tobom spremijo Nušina,
da te mudro u Ozimu čuva,
u Ozimu i do tamo džadom,
na svakome mestu tijesnome.
Tek, Halile, amanet ti težak
– nemoj što ne'š slušat Kurtagića. 1380
Valah bilah, goješan Halile,
u svoj Bosni ni u svoj Krajini
– mili brate, ni Unđurovini –
kā Nušina serhatlije nema
– ni u boju boljega gazije,
ni na srcu tak'og ljubavnika,
i njegova lica nasmijana
kā Nušina Kurtagića nema.«
187. Further in Parry Text 12428:
Halil zovnu gazi Kurtagića:
»Nuško, brate kā od moje majke, 1390
N'jesi, brate, mlogo ostanuo,
nit' ćeš mlogo Hrnjičića tražit.
Z desna, brate, na lijevo zađi,
evo mene i Osmana amo.«
Kad je Nušin čuo za Halila,
»Blagoš!« reče, odsjede dorina,
na lijevo kod Halila zađe.
Kad je doš'o među pobratime,
selam dade, pa pokraj njih stade.
Oba momka na noge skočiše, 1400
a bijele ruke raširiše,
s Kurtagićem Nuškom poljubiše.
Halil Nuška za desnicu ruku
za gotovu sofru posadijo.
188. "Haso od Ribnika izbavi Mustajbega," Nos. 18 and 19 in: Serbocroatian Heroic Songs, collected and edited by Milman Parry and Albert Bates Lord, volume 2, Belgrade and Cambridge (Serbian Academy of Sciences and Harvard University Press), 1953, pp. 158-184.
189. Ibid., 173-174.
190. Ibid., 174.
191. Ibid., 55-98.
192. Ibid., 60.
193. "Robovanje Osmanbeg Omerbegovića" in: Serbo-Croatian Heroic Songs vol. 14, Cambridge, MA 1979, pp. 456-524. An English translation is in Serbo-Croatian Heroic Poems; Epics from Bihać, Cazin, and Kulen Vakuf, New York, 1993, pp. 375-433.
194. Ruth Benedict, Zuñi Mythology, volume 1, New York (Columbia University Press), 1935, p. xiii.
195. Ibid., pp. xiii-xiv.
196. Kenelm Burridge, Tangu Traditions; A Study of the Way of Life, Mythology, and Developing Experience of a New Guinea People, Oxford (Clarendon Press), 1969, p. 195.
197. David E. Bynum, "Kult dvaju junaka u kulturnoj istoriji Balkana," in: Anali Filološkog fakulteta 4, Belgrade, 1964, pp. 65-73 (English summary on p. 73).
198. Julian Huxley, Evolution: The Modern Synthesis, (3rd edition) London, 1974, pp. 40-41.
199. David E. Bynum, ed., Serbo-Croatian Heroic Songs Collected by Milman Parry, vols. 3-4, Cambridge (Center for the Study of Oral Literature), 1974, pp. xx-xxii.
200. Newman Ivey White et al., The Frank C. Brown Collection of North Carolina Folklore, v. I, Durham NC, 1952, p. 637.